This section introduces the basic rules governing the use of commas, semicolons and colons in sentences.  You may browse this section by clicking on a particular topic, or you may scroll down to study the rules sequentially.

Section outline:

Comma basics

1. Use a comma to join independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

We visited the museum, but we never found the sculpture garden.

Susan lost her keys, yet she still made it to class on time.

2. Use a comma after an introductory clause, or after an introductory phrase of five words or more:

Introductory Clause:  As the days grow longer, we find ourselves restless to be outdoors.

Introductory Phrase: In most middle class American households, dinners prepared by microwave are commonplace.

Introductory clauses are most often subordinate elements of the sentence. This means that they cannot stand on their own, and they they support the meaning of the main clause.

A conjunctive adverb or transition element is set off by a comma. These elements signal a logical direction of the sentence content. This direction may be a continuation as in the following sentence:

For example, Americans spend more on prepared foods
than on fresh vegetables.

Or, they may signal a logical contrast:

However, we still like to think of ourselves as healthy.

3. Use a comma after all items in a series:

The junior class took reponsibility for the homecoming parade,
the holiday tea, and the spring cruise.

4. Use a comma to set off nonrestrictive (nonessential) elements of a sentence:

Alana, a senior from Texas, spoke to our class
about her mission work in Cuba.

Nonrestrictive elements can be subordinate clauses or phrases. They can also be appositives such as "a senior from Texas" above. Appositives are words, clauses, or phrases which offer additional information about the sentence element that proceeds them.

Misuses of the comma

1. Do not use a comma to separate compound elements within a single clause or phrase:

Four Meredith students entered the national
contest, and won first place.

The comma in this example separates the two parts of a compound verb, "entered" and "won." There is only one clause in the sentence. If the second verb, "won," were to have its own subject, then a comma would be needed:

Four Meredith students entered the national
contest, and they won first place.

2. Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series:

Incorrect: She asked me to bring, crackers, napkins, and ice.

The comma after "bring" should be removed.

Correct:  She asked me to bring crackers, napkins, and ice.

Incorrect: She asked me to bring crackers, napkins, and, ice.

The comma after "and" should be removed.

Correct:   She asked me to bring crackers, napkins, and ice.

3. Do not use a comma with restrictive (essential) clauses or phrases:

Incorrect: Virginia Woolf's novel, To the Lighthouse, explores the passing of time.

By setting the title of the novel off with commas, we indicate that To the Lighthouse is the only novel Virginia Woolf wrote.

Correct:  Virginia Woolf's novel To the Lighthouse explores the passing of time.

In this form, the restrictive element To the Lighthouse tells us which of Virginia Woolf's numerous novels explores the passing of time.

4. Do not use a comma to separate the subject and verb of a sentence:

Incorrect: The ways in which people choose to communicate, have been linked to gender expectations.

The subject is "ways"; the verb is "have been linked." The phrase "in which people choose to communicate" is essential to the understanding of "ways," so it does not call for a comma at either end. This problem occurs most often when a group of words appears between the subject and the verb.   The sentence should look like this:

Correct:  The ways in which people choose to communicate have been linked to gender expectations.

5. Do not join independent clauses with a comma:

Incorrect:  Sonya received three job offers, she took the one closest to home.

This is a comma splice. It can be punctuated correctly with a semicolon:

Correct:  Sonya received three job offers; she took the one closest to home.

The sentence can also be edited to includ e a coordinating conjunction:

Correct:  Sonya received three job offers, and she took the one closest to home.

It is also correct to remove the subject "she" and make a compound verb:

Correct: Sonya received three job offers and took the one closest to home.

For more help with comma splices, please see the "Sentence Problems" section of this guide.

Comma Tutorial

Directions: Each item below contains three sentences, only one of which uses commas correctly. Click on the correct sentence in each group.

1a. Your choice: Jane Wilson, who was elected May Queen this year, is my best friend.

This choice is correct. The clause "who was elected May Queen this year" modifies Jane Wilson, the subject of the sentence. It is a type of nonessential or nonrestrictive clause; it is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Nonrestrictive clauses are also set off by commas.

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The nonrestrictive adjective clause "who was elected May Queen this year" must be set off by commas. It gives us more information about Jane Wilson, but it is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. It is especially important to note that this choice of punctuation appears to separate the subject and verb of the sentence. When tempted to place a single comma directly before the main verb of a sentence, look for phrases and clauses that must be set off on either side. The correct punctuation of this sentence is as follows:

Jane Wilson, who was elected May Queen this year,
is my best friend.

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This sentence includes an adjective clause, "who was elected May Queen this year." It is nonrestrictive or nonessential, so it must be set off by commas. Nonrestrictive means that it is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

Sometimes clauses like this one are essential to the meaning of the sentence. Consider the following example:

Girls who aspire to be May Queen must demonstrate a solid record of community service.

This sentence tells us that a specific group of girls must show that they have served the community. It does not refer to all girls, just to those who wish to be May Queen. The correct punctuation of the tutorial sentence is as follows:

Jane Wilson, who was elected May Queen this year, is my best friend.

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Correct! This sentence calls for no commas, because every element, including the restrictive clause "who knows her", is essential to the meaning. This restrictive clause limits the meaning of the subject "everybody", letting the reader know exactly who was surprised.

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This sentence calls for no commas or other internal punctuation:

Everybody who knows her was surprised at her
sudden decision to become a nurse.

If you set off the clause "who knows her" with commas, you are suggesting that everybody (perhaps the whole world population!) knows the woman in question. This clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence; it lets us know that a certain segment of the world's population was surprised. Only those people who knew her were surprised.

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This sentence calls for no internal punctuation. It should read as follows:

Everybody who knows her was surprised at her sudden decision to become a nurse.

Your choice actually separates the subject of the sentence from the verb. There is never a need to place a single comma before the verb. If you are tempted to do this, go back and see if there is a phrase or clause connected to the subject that needs to be set off on both sides. In this case there is a modifying clause, "who knows her." However, this clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence, so it requires no punctuation.

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3a. Your choice: Madame Curie, who discovered radium is French.

This sentence offers another example of a nonrestrive modifying clause. This clause, "who discovered radium," must be set off by commas. The sentence makes sense without this modifying element. You have supplied one of the commas, but another is needed after "radium," as follows:

Madame Curie, who discovered radium, is French.

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Correct!

This sentence offers another example of a nonrestrive modifying clause. This clause, "who discovered radium," must be set off by commas. The sentence makes sense without this modifying element.

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This sentence offers another example of a nonrestrive modifying clause. This clause, "who discovered radium," must be set off by commas. The sentence makes sense without this modifying element. The correct punctuation is as follows:

Madame Curie, who discovered radium, is French.

Please contrast this sentence with tutorial question 2, which illustrates a modifying element that is essential to the meaning of the sentence and thus appears without punctuation.

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This sentence consists of an introductory clause ("On our last vacation to Florida") and a main clause ("we saw in alligator on the highway"). The introductory clause serves as an adverb which tells when and where we saw an alligator on the highway. Introductory clauses, unless they consist of one or two words, are set off by a comma. The correct punctuation of this sentence is as follows:

On our last vacation to Florida,
we saw an alligator on the highway.

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Correct!

This sentence consists of an introductory clause ("On our last vacation to Florida") and a main clause ("we saw in alligator on the highway"). The introductory clause serves as an adverb which tells when and where we saw an alligator on the highway. Introductory clauses, unless they consist of one or two words, are set off by a comma.

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This sentence consists of an introductory clause ("On our last vacation to Florida") and a main clause ("we saw in alligator on the highway"). The introductory clause serves as an adverb which tells when and where we saw an alligator on the highway. Introductory clauses, unless they consist of one or two words, are set off by a comma. The correct punctuation of this sentence is as follows:

On our last vacation to Florida,
we saw an alligator on the highway.

You have set off the preposition phrase "to Florida" with commas. There is no need to do this.

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Correct!

You have correctly placed a comma after the introductory prepositional phrase "After spending four months in England." This adverbial phrase modifies "developed," the main verb of the sentence.

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This sentence calls for a comma after the introductory phrase "After spending four months in England." Here is the way it should look:

After spending four months in England,
she developed a rather odd accent.

The only exception to this rule is the very brief introductory word group which presents no danger of misreading. An example: "In no time we were at 2,800 feet" (Bedford 428).

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This sentence calls for a comma after the introductory phrase "After spending four months in England." Here is the way it should look:

After spending four months in England,
she developed a rather odd accent.

You have correctly placed the comma after England, but it appears that you may have done so with the intention of setting off the prepositional phrase "in England" with commas. This phrase is important to the meaning of the sentence, so it should not be set off from the rest of the introductory phrase.

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Items in a series which serve as part of a sentence must all be set off by commas. You have correctly chosen to place a comma after the first list item, "watch the PBS special," but you have omitted the necessary comma after the second item, "write a two-page response."

Here is the correct choice:

My history professor wants me to watch the PBS special, write a two-page response, and lead a brief discussion in class.

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You have correctly chosen to set off the series items by commas, but you have also chosen one incorrect comma. There is no need to put a comma after "to." In fact, by doing so, you have broken up the infinitive "to watch" that introduces the three parallel elements of the object of the verb "wants."

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Correct! You have used a comma to set off each of the three items in the series.

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This sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. The coordinating conjunction is always preceded by a comma.

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Correct!

This sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. When used to join two independent clauses, the coordinating conjunction is always preceeded by a comma.

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7c. Your choice: She expects us to remember the details so, I'm taking good notes.

You have noted the rule that calls for a comma in a sentence which connects two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (in this sentence, "so"). However, you have chosen to place the comma after, rather than before, the coordinating conjunction "so." The correct punctuation is as follows:

She expects us to remember the details, so I'm taking good notes.

The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

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8a.Your choice: Dr. Seuss's book, Green Eggs and Ham, is still a favorite among children today.

When you set off the title of the book with commas, you are suggesting that Green Eggs and Ham is the only book Dr. Seuss has ever written. Because Dr. Seuss has written numerous books, this appositive phrase is essential to our understanding of which book is still a favorite among children today. The sentence should look like this:

Dr. Seuss's book Green Eggs and Ham is still
a favorite among children today.

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8b. Your choice: Dr. Seuss's book Green Eggs and Ham is still a favorite among children today.

Correct!

You have chosen the form of the sentence which presents the book title as a restrictive or essential element. Because Dr. Seuss has written numerous books, we need this qualifier to tell us specifically which of those books is still a favorite among children today.

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8c.Your choice: Dr. Seuss's book Green Eggs and Ham, is still a favorite among children today.

This sentence calls for no internal punctuation. The comma after the book title in this choice separates the subject and verb of the sentence. These two sentence elements are never set off by commas.

Likewise, you would not set off the book title with commas, because you must have the title to know which of Dr. Seuss' numerous books remains a favorite among children today. The sentence should look like this:

Dr. Seuss's book Green Eggs and Ham is still
a favorite among children today.

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9a. Your choice: The friendships that we make in college often last throughout life.

Correct!

You have recognized that the adjective clause "that we make in college" is essential to the meaning of the sentence and therefore calls for no punctuation.

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9b. Your choice: The friendships, that we make in college, often last throughout life.

You have set off the adjective clause "that we make in college," thus suggesting that it is not important to the meaning of the sentence. On the contrary, it is needed to clarify which friendships often last throughout life. It calls for no commas:

The friendships that we make in college often last thoughout life.

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9c. Your choice: The friendships that we make in college, often last thoughout life.

This sentence calls for no commas. The adjective clause "that we make in college" helps us to understand which friendships often last throughout life. Your choice of punctuation separates the subject and verb of the sentence and is therefore incorrect. The sentence should be written as follows:

The friendships that we make in college often last thoughout life.

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10a. Your choice: She's still wearing the dress she bought last summer.

Correct!

This sentence calls for no commas. All elements contribute to the understanding of the sentence. The sentence is elliptical in that it implies the word "that" before "she bought last summer."

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10b. Your choice: She's still wearing the dress, she bought last summer.

The sentence is elliptical in that it implies the word "that" before "she bought last summer." With or without the word "that," the clause "she bought last summer" is essential in that it tells us which dress she is wearing.

This sentence calls for no commas:

She's still wearing the dress she bought last summer.

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10c. Your choice: She's still, wearing the dress she bought last summer.

Your selection separates the subject and verb of the sentence. In fact, it further divides the predicate by separating the verb from the adverb "still." This sentence calls for no commas:

She's still wearing the dress she bought last summer.

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 11a. Your choice: Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes, and then dropped out.

This sentence has a compound verb, but it is not a compound sentence joined by the coordinating conjunction "and."  When the compound verb has two components, these components are not separated by a comma.  Here is an example of a sentence that would call for this punctuation:

Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes,
and two of us dropped out.

This example consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.  It is correctly punctuated as follows:

Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes
and then dropped out.

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11b. Your choice:  Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes and then dropped out.

This is correct!  The compound verb in this sentence does not call for punctuation.

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11c. Your choice:  Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes and then, dropped out.

This sentence has a compound verb, but it is not a compound sentence joined by the coordinating conjunction "and."  When the compound verb has two components, these components are not separated by a comma.  Here is an example of a sentence that would call for this punctuation:

Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes,
and two of us dropped out.

This example consists of two independent clauses joined by the coordinating conjunction "and."

The correct punctuation of the sentence is as follows:

Four of us signed up for kickboxing classes
and then dropped out.

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12a. Your choice:  We wanted to get in shape, but we couldn't learn the intricate moves.

This is correct!

This sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by the coordinating conjunction "but."  It is correct to place a comma after the first clause and before the conjunction.

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12b. Your choice:  We wanted to get in shape but we couldn't learn the intricate moves.

This sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by the coordinating conjunction "but."  It is correct to place a comma after the first clause and before the conjunction.  The sentence should look like this: 

We wanted to get in shape,
but we couldn't learn the intricate moves.

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12c. Your choice:  We wanted to get in shape but, we couldn't learn the intricate moves.

You are right to place a comma between two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction ("but" in this sentence), but the placement of the comma is incorrect.  The comma should appear before the conjunction:

We wanted to get in shape,
but we couldn't learn the intricate moves.

End of tutorial

Scroll down to review semicolons, or return to top

Semicolon basics

1. Use a semicolon to connect closely related independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction:

Diane expects to get a car for her birthday; she's already
making plans for a trip.

Her parents' prosperity has made her independent; her independence has made her strong.

Note that on either side of the semicolon you will find an independent clause, complete with subject and verb.

2. Use a semicolon between independent clauses linked by a conjunctive adverb or a transitional phrase:

Special effects can interfere with our sense of a film's story line; however, we still rush to the theater for the latest in laser wars and technographics.

Remember the comma after "however," the conjunctive adverb.

I really enjoyed Kenneth Brannaugh's Hamlet; even so, the Mel Gibson version captures the story without dragging on too long.

Examples of transitional phrases: after all, as a matter of fact, as a result, at any rate, at the same time, for example, finally, likewise, otherwise

3. Use a semicolon between items in a series containing internal punctuation. For example, items in a series may include commas.

My favorite film adaptations of Shakespeare include the 1950s version of Hamlet, starring Lawrence Olivier; Brannaugh's Much Ado about Nothing, starring his ex-wife Emma Thompson, and the recently release Othello, which featured Denzel Washington in the title role.

Misuses of the semicolon

1. Do not use a semicolon to join sentence elements of unequal rank. Semicolons do not connect clauses and phrases, nor do they connect subordinate clauses to the main clause in a sentence.

Incorrect: Tired of waiting for an operator; Sheila hung up the telephone.

A comma should be used to connect the introductory phrase to the main clause.

Correct: Tired of waiting for an operator, Sheila hung up the telephone.

Incorrect: Although the cost of living has remained even; basic expenses can still devour a student's paycheck.

The "although" clause is dependent upon the main clause.  The sentence should be punctuated as follows:

Correct: Although the cost of living has remained even, basic expenses can still devour a student's paycheck.

The colon: basics

1. Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list, an appositive or a quotation. Note that the sentence element after the colon is not an independent clause.

Introducing a list: Maisie had three goals:  to win a poetry prize, to travel to Asia, and to learn to snowboard.

Introducing an appositive:  Carmen told us about her trip:  six weeks of rock climbing in Afganistan.

Introducing a quotation:  Officer Melbourne offered this advice:  "After a snowstorm, drive slowly and avoid steep inclines."

2. Use a colon to connect two independent clauses IF the second summarizes or explains the first:

Example:  Patience is a virtue: it can make you a kinder person.

Misuses of the colon:

1. Do not use a colon between a verb and its complement or object:

Incorrect: The most difficult challenges I have faced include:   overcoming a fear of water and learning to walk again after breaking both ankles.

Note that the portion of the sentence to the left of the colon is not an independent clause.  The "list" is the object of the verb "include."  This sentence would be correct without the colon:

Correct: The most difficult challenges I have faced include   overcoming a fear of water and learning to walk again after breaking both ankles.

Punctuation Tutorial

This tutorial allows you to check your understanding of the use of commas, semicolons and colons. It is helpful to know when not to use a semicolon. Click on the number of the correctly punctuated sentence.

Answers to punctuation tutorial

1a. Your choice: Whenever I see a red sunset, I remember the summer days of Rio de Janeiro.

Correct!. The introductory subordinate clause "Whenever I see a red sunset" is set off from the main clause by a comma.

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1b Your choice: Whenever I see a red sunset I remember the summer days of Rio de Janeiro.

The introductory subordinate clause "Whenever I see a red sunset" must be set off from the main clause by a comma.

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1c. Your choice: Whenever I see a red sunset; I remember the summer days of Rio de Janeiro.

A semicolon can join two independent clauses. This sentence consists of one independent clause ("I remember the summer days of Rio de Janeiro") and one dependent clause ("Whenever I see a red sunset"). The correct punctuation is a comma between the two clauses:

Whenever I see a red sunset, I remember the summer days of Rio de Janeiro.

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2a. Your choice: Jenny has read four Austen novels, she remembers every character, too.

The two independent clauses of this sentence must be joined with a semicolon:

Jenny has read four Austen novels;
she remembers every character, too.

When you connect two independent clauses with a comma, you create a comma splice.

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2b. Your choice: Jenny has read four Austen novels; she remembers every character, too.

Correct! The correct way to join two independent clauses is to place a semicolon between them.

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2c. Your choice: Jenny has read four Austen novels; and she remembers every character, too.

If you use a semicolon to join these independent clauses, you do not need the coordinating conjunction "and."

Jenny has read four Austen novels;
she remembers every character, too.

If you use the coordinating conjunction "and," you should replace the semicolon with a comma:

Jenny has read four Austen novels, and she remembers every character, too.

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3a. Your choice: Although I have read several Austen novels myself, I can't seem to keep the characters straight.

Correct! The introductory clause "Although I have read several Austen novels myself" is subordinate to the main clause and should therefore be followed by a comma.

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3b. Your choice: Although I have read several Austen novels myself; I can't seem to keep the characters straight.

This version uses a semicolon to join two clauses of unequal weight. The introductory clause, "Although I have read several Jane Austen novels," is subordinate to the main clause. The correct punctuation of this complex sentence is a comma after the subordinate clause:

Although I have read several Jane Austen novels myself, I can't seem to keep the characters straight.

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3c. Your choice: Although; I have read several Austen novels, I can't seem to keep the characters straight.

This choice adds a semicolon after the subordinating conjunction "although." Subordinating conjunctions do not stand alone in this manner; they introduce a dependent clause. The entire subordinate clause is set off from the main clause with a comma. The comma in this choice is correctly placed. There should be no punctuation after "although."

Although I have read several Austen novels,
I can't seem to keep the characters straight.

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4a. Your choice: Austen; however, gives her heroes names that are not easily forgotten.

The "however" in this sentence suggests a logical contrast with an idea from a previous sentence. It would seem to follow logically with tutorial question 3: "Although I have read several Austen novels, I can't seem to keep the characters straight." When used in this manner, the adverb "however" is set off by commas.  When a sentence includes two clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb, then they are joined by a semicolon and the conjunctive adverb is followed by a comma:

Austen novels involve many characters; however,
each features a single hero and heroine.

The correct punctuation of the tutorial question is as follows:

Austen, however, gives her heroes names
that are not easily forgotten.

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4b. Your choice: Austen, however, gives her heroes names that are not easily forgotten.

Correct! The adverb is set off by commas.

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4c. Your choice: Austen, however; gives her heroes names that are not easily forgotten.

The "however" in this sentence suggests a logical contrast with an idea from a previous sentence. It would seem to follow logically with tutorial question 3: "Although I have read several Austen novels, I can't seem to keep the characters straight." When used in this manner, the conjunctive adverb "however" is set off by commas.  When a sentence includes two clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb, then they are joined by a semicolon and the conjunctive adverb is followed by a comma:

Austen novels involve many characters; however, each features a single hero and heroine.

Please note, however, that you chose a version which not only followed (incorrectly) the above pattern, but also reversed the placement of the comma and the semicolon. The semicolon separates the two clauses, and the "however" is part of the second clause. When you do have cause to use a semicolon with a conjunctive adverb, be careful to place it correctly.

The correct punctuation of the tutorial question is as follows:

Austen, however, gives her heroes names
that are not easily forgotten.

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5a. Your choice: The annoying habits of my roommate include: laughing at my drawings, flirting with my boyfriend, and wearing my clothes without asking my permission.

A colon may be used to introduce a list, but the sentence elements preceeding the colon must be able to stand alone. In this sentence the list serves as the object of the verb "include." The portion of the sentence up to and including the word "include" is not logically or structurally complete by itself. A correct use of a colon to introduce a list is the following:

The annoying habits of my roommate include the following: laughing at my drawings, flirting with my boyfriend,
and wearing my clothes without asking my permission.

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5b. Your choice: The annoying habits of my roommate include laughing at my drawings, flirting with my boyfriend, and wearing my clothes without asking my permission.

Correct! This sentence calls for no punctuation before this list of items which serve as the objects of the verb "include."

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5c. Your choice: The annoying habits of my roommate include, laughing at my drawings; flirting with my boyfriend; and wearing my clothes without asking my permission.

This sentence calls for no punctuation before the list of items that serve as the objects of the verb "include." It should look like this:

The annoying habits of my roommate include laughing at my drawings; flirting with my boyfriend;
and wearing my clothes without asking my permission.

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6a. Your choice:When you reach the island, park your car on the north lot; register at the hotel; and ask to have us paged.

The comma after "island" correctly sets off the introductory (dependent) clause. The main clause of this sentence includes a list of three commands. They should be set off by commas:

When you reach the island, park your car on the north lot, register at the hotel, and ask to have us paged.

Semicolons are used to separate list items which include internal punctuation such as commas. For an example, see item 12 in this tutorial.

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6b. Your choice: When you reach the island, park your car on the north lot, register at the hotel, and ask to have us paged.

Correct! You have correctly chosen the sentence which sets off the list items with commas.

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6c. Your choice: When you reach the island, park your car on the north lot, register at the hotel and ask to have us paged.

You have correctly chosen the use of commas over semicolons to separate list items in a sentence. However, you must also include a comma between the second list item and the "and." Here is the way the sentence should be written:

When you reach the island, park your car on the north lot,
register at the hotel, and ask to have us paged.

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7a. Your choice: Camilla has advanced degrees in three disciplines; biology, medical ethics, and English.

This sentence consists of an independent clause and a list which serves as an appositive for "disciplines." A colon is used after "disciplines," the last word of the independent clause:

Camilla has advanced degrees in three disciplines: biology, medical ethics, and English.

A semicolon is used to join two independent clauses with related content. It is never used to introduce a list of items that is not an independent clause.

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7b. Your choice: Camilla has advanced degrees in three disciplines, biology, medical ethics and English.

This sentence consists of an independent clause and a list which serves as an appositive for "disciplines." A colon is used after "disciplines," the last word of the independent clause:

Camilla has advanced degrees in three disciplines: biology,
medical ethics, and English.

A comma after "disciplines" fails to clue the reader that a list will follow. In fact, this version suggests that Camilla has degrees in three disciplines, as well as degrees in biology, medical ethics, and English.

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7c. Your choice: Camilla has advanced degrees in three disciplines: biology, medical ethics, and English.

Correct!

This sentence illustrates the correct use of colon to introduce a list which serves as an appositive for a sentence element of the preceeding independent clause. The list offers additional detail about "disciplines."

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8a. Your choice: She wants to teach; however, she is prepared to take whatever job she is offered.

Correct! This sentence illustrates the correct use of a semicolon separating two independent clauses. The second clause is introduced by the conjunctive adverb "however."

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8b. Your choice: She wants to teach, however she is prepared to take whatever job she is offered.

The two independent clauses in this sentence must be joined by a semicolon or separated into two sentences. This version creates a comma splice and presents confusion about the meaning of "however." It sounds as if she wants to teach no matter how she is prepared, and then the rest of the sentence makes no sense at all.

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8c. Your choice: She wants to teach, however; she is prepared to take whatever job she is offered.

You are on the right track in selecting a semicolon to join the two independent clauses in this sentence. Assuming that the "however" is presenting a contrast between the woman's desire to teach and her acceptance of the fact that she may have to take another kind of job, the "however" belongs to the second clause. Then the semicolon belongs after "teach," and a comma follows "however":

She wants to teach; however, she is prepared
to take whatever job she is offered.

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9a. Your choice: Since we took up windsurfing, life has felt much more exciting.

Correct!

The dependent introductory clause "Since we took up windsurfing" is set off from the main clause of the sentence by a comma.

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9b. Your choice: Since we took up windsurfing; life has felt much more exciting.

By joining these two clauses with a semicolon, you are suggesting that they are of equal weight in the sentence and that each is independent. Actually, the introductory clause "Since we took up windsurfing" is dependent or subordinate. For this reason, it must be joined to the main clause by a comma, not with a semicolon:

Since we took up windsurfing, life has felt much more exciting.

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9c. Your choice: Since we took up windsurfing life has felt much more exciting.

The two clauses in this sentence must be separated by punctuation. Because the introductory clause "Since we took up windsurfing" is dependent, it should be followed by a comma:

Since we took up windsurfing, life has felt much more exciting.

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10a. Your choice: Her watercolors looked like puddles; her ink drawings, looked like scribbles.

You have correctly chosen a semicolon to join the two independent clauses which form this sentence. However, you have also opted to separate the subject and verb of the second clause with a comma. There is no need to do this. Here is the way the sentence should look:

Her watercolors looked like puddles; her ink drawings looked like scribbles.

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10b. Your choice: Her watercolors looked like puddles, her ink drawings looked like scribbles.

This choice creates a comma splice by joining two independent clauses with a comma. The correct punctuation is a semicolon between the two clauses:

Her watercolors looked like puddles; her ink drawings looked like scribbles.

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10c. Your choice: Her watercolors looked like puddles; her ink drawings looked like scribbles.

Correct!

You have correctly chosen the version which joins these two independent clauses with a semicolon. The only other option is to separate them into two sentences.

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11a. Your choice: Our commencement speaker gave us one piece of useful advice, "Wear sunscreen."

When introducing dialogue you would place a comma after the introductory elements and then place the dialogue in quotation marks. This sentence, however, is presenting a quotation as an appostive that expands upon the meaning of "advice." In this situation, the correct punctuation is a colon:

Our commencement speaker gave us one piece of useful advice: "Wear sunscreen."

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11b. Your choice: Our commencement speaker gave us one piece of useful advice: "Wear sunscreen."

Correct!

This is the correct use of a colon to introduce a quotation which serves as an appositive of a preceeding sentence element.

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11c. Your choice: Our commencement speaker gave us one piece of useful advice; "Wear sunscreen."

When a sentence introduces a quotation which serves as an appositive of a preceding sentence element, the correct punctuation is a colon placed at the end of the introductory clause and before the quotation.

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